Representation Theories

Representation Theories Theorist	Theory
Laura Mulvey	•         The Male Gaze- Mulvey argues that in classic Hollywood films in particular women are merely represented to provide visual pleasure to men , and the audience is constructed in a manner where they are all expected to be men. This male gaze is both voyeuristic and fetishistic. •         E.g. The camera focusing on a woman's lips or legs.
Marjorie Ferguson (1980)	Women’s expressions and meanings: Chocolate Box: half or full-smile, lips together or slightly parted, teeth barely visible, full or three-quarter face to camera. Projected mood: blandly pleasing, warm bath warmth, where uniformity of features in their smooth perfection is devoid of uniqueness or of individuality. Invitational: emphasis on the eyes, mouth shut or with only a hint of a smile, head to one side or looking back to camera. Projected mood: suggestive of mischief or mystery, the hint of contact potential rather than sexual promise, the cover equivalent of advertising’s soft sell. Super-smiler: full face, wide open toothy smile, head thrust forward or chin thrown back, hair often wind-blown. Projected mood: aggressive, ‘look-at-me’ demanding, the hard sell, ‘big come-on’ approach. Romantic or Sexual: a fourth and more general classification devised to include male and female ‘two-somes’; or the dreamy, heavy-lidded, unsmiling big-heads, or the overtly sensual or sexual. Projected moods: possible ‘available’ and definitely ‘available’.
Trevor Millum	•         Soft/introverted: eyes often shut or half-closed, the mouth slightly open/pouting, rarely smiling; an inward-looking trance-like reverie, removed from earthly things. •         Cool/level: indifferent, self-sufficient, arrogant, slightly insolent, haughty, aloof, confident, reserved; wide eyes, full lips straight or slightly parted, and obtrusive hair, often blonde. The eyes usually look the reader in the eye, as perhaps the woman regards herself in the mirror. •         Seductive: similar to the cool/level look in many respects - the eyes are less wide, perhaps shaded, the expression is less reserved but still self-sufficient and confident; milder versions may include a slight smile. •         Narcissistic: similarities to the cool/level and soft/introverted looks, rather closer to the latter: a satisfied smile, closed or half-closed eyes, self-enclosed, oblivious, content - ‘activity directed inward’. •         Carefree: nymphlike, active, healthy, gay, vibrant, outdoor girl; long unrestrained outward-flowing hair, more outward-going than the above, often smiling or grinning. •         Kittenlike: coy, naïve (perhaps in a deliberate, studied way), a friendlier and more girlish version of the cool/level look, sometimes almost twee. •         Maternal: motherly, matronly, mature, wise, experienced and kind, carrying a sort of authority; shorter hair, slight smile and gentle eyes - mouth may sometimes be stern, but eyes twinkle. •         Practical: concentrating, engaged on the business in hand, mouth closed, eyes object-directed, sometimes a slight frown; hair often short or tied back. •         Comic: deliberately ridiculous, exaggerated, acting the fool, pulling faces for the benefit of a real or imaginary audience, sometimes close to a sort of archness. •         Catalogue: a neutral look as of a dummy, artificial, waxlike; features may be in any position, but most likely to be with eyes open wide and a smile, but the look remains vacant and empty; personality has been removed. (Millum 1975, 97-8)
Gaye Tuchman	Summarizing television content analyses over a twenty-year period Tuchman shows that images of men outnumber those of women by two to one. If a working person is portrayed it is almost always a male image and those working women that are depicted are shown to be incompetent and inferior to male workers: 'men are doctors, women, nurses; men are lawyers, women secretaries; men work in corporations, women tend boutiques' (Tuchman 1981). Two thirds of the images of women shown on the screen are of women who have been, are, or are about to be, married. But the typical male image is of a single person.
Pluralism	Pluralists do not really engage in the ownership debate because they consider the consumer/audience to be more important. They accept that there is concentration of ownership and that this brings with it inevitable bias and distortion in media products. However this is irrelevant as the most significant factor is the ability of the audience to consume the media for their own gratifications and needs. In this way, the audience is active in the meaning process and thus dilutes the debate about audiences being manipulated into the acceptance of dominant ideology. The audience is selective in its consumption of the media, so therefore becomes discriminating and interpretative of the media messages.
Representation Theories Postmodernism	Postmodernists argue that developments in technology and improved access to technology have resulted in empowerment for consumers and the decentralisation of dominant powers. They argue that there is a proliferation of media products available that are not all controlled by the Major conglomerates and as such there has been a dissemination of power and ideas. Minority groups and alternative voices now have the opportunity to make themselves heard and challenge the dominant ideology and status quo. Postmodernist thought also argue that messages and ideas produced by major media companies are interpreted differently by varying audiences and as such can have no fixed meaning in today’s media saturated society.